Table 2. Mining activities relevant ES types and description.

Classification	Mining activities relevant ecosystem service types	Description
Provisioning service	Medicinal resources	All ecosystems not only provide medicinal resources but also serves as potential sources of medical assets.
	Fresh water	Forest and vegetation have a positive impacts on the amount of water available for use.
	Food	Food is produced by well-managed agricultural ecosystems, but also provided by coastal, marine, and forest ecosystems in terms of seafood and crops. In addition, one can obtain nutritional benefits by consuming various forest products.
	Raw materials	Forest provides valuable raw materials such as timber, bio-fuels, and construction materials.
Regulating service	Crop pollination	Insects and wind help pollinate plants and trees, supporting the production of agricultural and forest products. In forest restoration sites, considering the surrounding social conditions, selective tree species can be planted to assist in crop pollination.
	Local climate and air quality	Forest has a regional impact on rainfall and water availability. Trees and understory vegetation also regulate air quality by removing pollutants from the atmosphere.
	Biological control	Ecosystems regulate pests and diseases through the activities of predators and parasites. Birds, flies, wasps, frogs, fungi, and other organisms contribute to natural control roles.
	Moderation of extreme events	Natural disasters include floods, typhoons, landslides, and more. Ecosystems and organisms create buffering mechanisms to mitigate potential damages caused by natural disasters. For example, reforestation can help stabilize slopes and prevent landslides through tree planting.
	Waste-water treatment	Biological activities of soil micro-organisms help decompose waste and reduce the level of pollution, including waste materials.
	Carbon sequestration and storage	As trees grow, they remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and effectively sequester carbons in their tissues. Therefore, forest ecosystems serve as carbon sinks and contribute to enhancing the capacity of ecosystems to adapt to climate change impacts.
	Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility	Soil erosion is a key factor in soil degradation and desertification processes. Afforestation in barren or degraded areas helps prevent soil erosion. Additionally, it improves soil fertility, supplying necessary nutrients to support ecosystem functioning and facilitate plant growth.
Cultural service	Recreation	Mining areas have infrastructure such as roads installed for mining activities. By utilizing such infrastructure, forest restoration sites in mining areas can be integrated with green spaces, providing diverse recreational and leisure opportunities and spaces.
	Educational value and tourism	Ecosystems and biodiversity are major sources of tourism industry and also provide economic benefits. Forest rehabilitation for ecosystem creation can be utilized as an educational platform, promoting cultural, eco, and educational tourism to convey the importance of forests to people.
	Aesthetic appreciation	Well-restored natural landscapes and ecosystems provide inspiration for culture, art, design, and more.
	Mental and physical health	Forest rehabilitation provides benefits for maintaining and enhancing both mental and physical health.
	Spiritual experience and sense of place	Mother nature is a common element for many religions and traditional knowledge, and provides places for community activities related to religions and traditional beliefs.
Habitat service	Habitats for species	Habitats provide essential elements such as food, water, and shelter for individual plants or animals to survive. Each ecosystem provides different habitats essential for life cycles of species.
	Maintenance of genetic diversity	Genetic diversity provides a gene pool that promotes the development of locally adapted varieties of different species and improves commercial crops and livestock. Certain forest restoration sites are designed to create exceptional habitats for a greater number of species or artificially create “biodiversity hotspots” with increased genetic diversity, reflecting the demand of indigenous species and the surrounding local communities.